Sunday, April 10, 2011

निद्रा लाग्दैन ? तनावबाट मुक्त हुनोस्

निद्रा लाग्दैन ? तनावबाट मुक्त हुनोस्


विगत पाँच वर्षअघिदेखि धापासी बस्ने ३५ वर्षिया रामबहादुर बानियाँलाई राती पटक्कै निद्रा लाग्दैन, त्यसैले उपचारार्थ शिक्षण अस्पताल धाइरहेका छन् । यस्तै भर्खरै ११ कक्षामा भर्ना भएकी अनामनगरकी १६ वर्षिया सुष्मिता राईलाई राति १२ बजे उप्रान्त निन्द्रा नलाग्ने भएको हुनाले उनका बुबाले ओम हस्पिटलमा ल्याएका छन् । ४० वर्षिया कमला श्रेष्ठलाई पनि खाना खाएर सुत्दा भाते निद्रा (२।४ घण्टा) पछि निद्रा लाग्दैन । निद्रा नलाग्ने समस्या अहिले आम समस्या बनिसकेको छ ।
उमेर ढल्किसकेपछि निद्रा कम लाग्नु कुनै ठूलो कुरा मानिँदैन तर युवावस्थामा निद्रा नलाग्नु भने चिन्ताको विषय हुनसक्छ । वरिष्ठ डा. देवेन्द्र प्रधान निद्रा नलाग्नुको कारणबारे भन्नुहुन्छ - 'मानिसलाई विशेषगरी राती निद्रा नलाग्नु भनेको त्यसभित्र मानसिक तनावले जरा गाड्नु हो । सो मानसिक तनाव मुक्त हुने कोसिस गर्दा नै राम्रो हुन्छ ।' डाक्टरी उपचार अथवा औषधिले अनिद्रालाई स्थायी नभई क्षणिकलाई मात्र समस्या समाधान हुने गर्छ । अचेल हरेक व्यक्तिमा एकप्रकारको तनावले जरा गाडेको हुन्छ । सो मानसिक तनाव दिउँसोभन्दा राती मस्तिष्कमा आउन र मानिसको निद्रा लाग्ने ग्रन्थीलाई सक्रिय तुल्याउँछ । जसले गर्दा व्यक्तिलाई निद्राबाट टाढा राखिदिन्छ । विशेषगरी पारिवारिक समस्या, आर्थिक समस्या, पढाई आदिले मानिसको मस्तिष्कमा गहिरो प्रभाव पारेपछि राती फुर्सदको समयमा उक्त तनाव मस्तिष्क वरिपरि घुमिरहने हुँदा राती निद्रा नलाग्ने हुन्छ ।
यस्तो निद्रा नलाग्ने समस्या छ भने तपाईं चिकित्सक कहाँ जानुभन्दा पहिले तनाव मुक्त हुने प्रयास गर्नुहोस् र तल उल्लेखित उपायहरू अपनाएर हेर्नु भए अनिद्राबाट केही हदसम्म राहत पाउन सक्नुहुनेछ ।
निद्राको रहस्य के हो ?
मानिसले साधारणतः २४ घण्टामा ८ घण्टा सुतेर बिताउँछ । अतः जीवनको तीन चौथाईमा एक चौथाई सुत्नमै बित्छ । कोही ८ घण्टा सुत्छन्, कोही निद्रा नआएर छट्पटाउँछन् । विशेषज्ञहरूको भनाइअनुसार सुतेको बेला नाडी, रक्त दबाव, श्वास क्रिया, मांशपेशी तथा अन्य शारीरिक प्रतिक्रियामा एक परिवर्तन वा स्थिरता आउँछ । यसले मस्तिष्कमा के प्रभाव पर्छ, यसै भन्न सकिएको छैन तर अब निद्राको अवस्थाको विश्लेषण गर्न सम्भव चाहिँ भएको छ ।
कति सुत्ने र कस्तो सुत्ने ?
खास रूपमा ८ घण्टा सुते पुग्छ भनिन्छ, तर यसमा पनि अपवाद छ । केही क्रियाशील प्रखर व्यक्तिहरू ३।४ घण्टा मात्रै सुत्छन् । उमेरसँगै निद्राको समयमा पनि फरक पर्छ । केटाकेटीहरू दिनभरि सुत्छन् । बूढाबुढीहरू दिनभरी बेलाबेलामा उध्छन् र तिनले सुतेको सम्पूर्ण समय जोड्ने हो भने बूढाबुढीहरू पनि निकै समय सुत्छन् ।
मस्तिष्क सुत्छ ?
शरीर आराम गर्छ, तर मस्तिष्क निकै जागरुक रहन्छ र रईजी (निद्रा नाप्ने यन्त्र) को सहायताबाट डाक्टरहरूले नाप्छन् । यो बिजुलीको मेसिनले मस्तिष्कका तरङ्गहरू नापेर देखाउँछ ।
गाढा निद्रा कहिले लाग्छ ?
निद्राको गाढापन चार प्रकारको मानिएको छ । पहिलो सबैभन्दा गाढा निद्रा चौथो खालको भनिन्छ । जब जब रात बित्छ क्रमशः दोस्रो र तेस्रो निद्रा पहिलो स्तरमा आउँछ । भनाइ के छ भने बाह्र बजेभन्दा पहिलेको निद्रा रात दुई बजेपछिको भन्दा राम्रो गाढा हुन्छ । धेरै मानिसहरू १० बजेदेखि १२ बजेसम्मको निद्रानै सबैभन्दा उत्तम मान्दछन् ।
निद्रामा हिँड्नु
चौथो स्तरको गाढा निद्रामा कोही मानिसहरू बरबराउने कोही उठेर हिँड्ने गर्छन् । यसै अवस्थामा बच्चाहरू ओछ्यानमा सूची गर्छन् । यस अवस्थामा बरबराउने वा हिँड्ने व्यक्तिलाई विस्तारै समातेर सम्झाएर राम्ररी ओछ्यानमा सुताउनुपर्छ । यस्तै बच्चाले सूची गर्‍यो भने सम्झाएर बुझाएर ब्यूँझाएर सुताउनु पर्छ । यस्तै बच्चाले सूची गर्‍यो भने सम्झाएर बुझाएर ब्यूँझाएर सुताउनुपर्छ । अचानक गाली गर्नु वा पिटपाट गर्नुघातक हुनसक्छ । यो निद्रामा धेरैजसो बेहोशनै हुन्छ ।
सपना कहिले आउँछ ?
सुतेको एक घण्टापछि तिव्र आँखाको गति शुरु हुन्छ । यसै अवस्थामा सपना आउँछ । सबैले सपना देख्छन्, कोहीले बिर्सन्छन् भने कोहीले बिर्सदैनन् सपना देख्दा हामी मानसिक रूपमा स्वस्थ्य हुन्छौँ ।
खराब सपना के हो ?
जब कुनै व्यक्ति जबरजस्ती वा कुनै मानसिक तनावको अवस्थामा सुत्छ भने उसलाई खराब सपना आउँछ भनिन्छ । यसमा पसिना आउने, हृदयकोगति बढ्ने, मांसपेशी संकुचनले अप्ठ्यारो भएर आउने र छटपटी हुनेगर्छ । यस्तो अवस्थामा विस्तारै सुताइ दिनुपर्छ । बारम्बार छट्पटी आउने भएमा डाक्टरको सल्लाह पनि लिन आवश्यक छ । निश्चित समयमा निद्रा नआउनु वा चिन्ता तनावबाट निद्रा नआउनुको लक्षण हो । निराशा, चिन्ता, अनि शरीर ठीक नभएर दुब्लाउनु सबै मानसिक गडबडी हो र थायरायड ग्लाण्डमा अधिक सक्रिय हुनु पनि शारीरिक गडबडी हो यी सबै निद्रा नआउने कारणले गर्दा हुन्छ ।
विशेषज्ञहरू निद्रा नआउने विषयमा अत्यधिक सोच्नु पनि निद्रा नआउने कारण हो भन्दछन् । अक्सर शारीरिक रूपले स्वस्थ्य भए पनि अनिद्राको कारणले गर्दा रोगको पीडा र गुनासो रहिरहन्छ । यस्तो रोगी झडङ्ग अनि निन्याउरो अनुहारको हुन्छ र रिस र निरासको कारण पनि बन्छ । मस्तिष्कमा दुई केन्द्र हुन्छ, एकले हामीलाई ब्यूँझाइ राख्छ भने अर्कोले सुताउँछ । चिन्ताले हामीलाई निद्रा आउन दिँदैन ।
निद्राको औषधि
निद्रामा गडबडी भएमा डाक्टर देखाउनुपर्छ । उसैको सल्लाहमा औषधि लिनुपर्छ । औषधि स्थायी उपचार चाहिँ पक्कै पनि होइन लगातार औषधि बढाउनु घातक हुन्छ । स्वस्थ, शान्त र प्रसन्न रहनुनै अनिद्राको अचुक औषधि मानिन्छ र जति निद्रा पर्छ त्यसमा सन्तोष गर्नु उपयुक्त हुन्छ ।
मीठो निद्रा कसरी पाउने ?
* सधैँ बिहान आरामसँग खुल्ला हावामा घुम्ने गर्नोस् ।
* सुत्नुभन्दा एकघण्टा पहिले मनतातो दूध पिउनु पनि फाइदाकारी हुन्छ ।
* सबै समस्या र चिन्तालाई कोशिस गरेर बिर्सनुहोस् र शान्त रहनुस् ।
* ओछ्यान हल्का नरम राख्नोस् ।
* हरसम्भव ११ बजेभन्दा पहिलेले सुत्नोस् ।
* निद्राको ध्यान गरेर पनि मीठो निद्रा आउँछ ।
* आफूलाई मनपर्ने मीठो सङ्गीत सुनेर सुत्ने बानी गर्नोस् ।
निद्राबाट के फाइदा ?
* सुत्दा शरीरमा हार्मोनको विकास तीव्र हुन्छ । त्यसैले बच्चा जति सुत्यो चाँडै बढ्छ भनिन्छ ।
* वयस्कहरूको छालाको नयाँ तह बन्छ र अनुहारमा सौन्दर्य बनेर झल्कन्छ ।
* सुत्दा रौं र कपालको विकास चाँडो चाँडो हुन्छ ।
* सुत्दा पेटको भित्री तहमा परिवर्तन भएर फाइदा हुन्छ ।
* घाउ, चोटपटक आदि चाँदै पुरिन्छ र फाइदा हुन्छ ।
* दिनभरिको थकाइहरू पूर्णरूपमा मेटिन्छ ।

पागलपन


पागलपन

कुनै पनि व्यक्तिको मानसिक सन्तुलन धेरै बिग्रेको खण्डमा व्याक्ती पागल हुन्छ अथवा बौलाहा हुन्छ। व्याक्तीको यस्तो अवस्थालाई पागलपन भनिन्छ। पागलपन मानसिक रोगबाट हुने एक खतरा हो। पागल व्याक्तिले असामाजिक र अनैतिक जस्ता कामहरु गर्छ। जस्तै:- चिल्लाउने, बेमतलब झगडा गर्ने, घर छोडेर जंगलमा बस्न जाने इत्यादी धेरै उल्टा कामहरु गर्ने व्याक्तीलाई पागल भनिन्छ।

व्यक्तिलाई पागल बनाउने विभिन्न कारणहरु
कुनै पागल व्याक्ती मानसिक कारण अथवा आफ्नो व्याक्तिगत जिवनका कारणले पागल हुन सक्छ। प्रेम विछोड, अकस्मात प्रियजनको मरण, ठुलो असफलता, अपमान, भय, आदी घटनाहरुलाई सहन गर्न नसकेर अर्थात आफ्नो मन मस्तिष्कलाई वसमा गर्न नसकेर धेरै व्याक्तिहरु पागल भएको हाम्रो समाजमा धेरै जस्तो सुनिन्छ । कुनै व्यक्ति वंशाणु गत हिसाबले पनि पागल हुन सक्छ । चरस, गाँजा, अफिम, रक्शी, जाँड आदी लागु पदार्थको अधिक सेवनले पनि व्याक्तिको मानसिक संतुलन बिग्रन सक्छ जसले गर्दा व्याक्ती अर्ध पागल अथवा पुर्ण पागल हुन सक्छ ।
शारिक तथा स्वास्थ्यको कारणले गर्दा व्याक्ती पागलपनको सिकार बन्न सक्छ। जस्तै:- लामो समय सम्म बिमारी भएर स्मरण शक्ति हराउनु, टाउकोमा ठुलो चोट लागेर अथवा टाउको सम्बन्धी रोगका कारण आफ्नो वास्तविक अवस्थालाई भुलेर पागल हुनु। आदी कारणहरु व्याक्तीको स्वास्थ्यले व्याक्तिलाई पागलपनको सिकार बनाउन सक्छन् ।
कति पय व्यक्तिहरु उमेरको परिवर्तन सँगै हुने मानसिक परिवर्तनलाई कन्ट्रोल गर्न नसकेर पागलपनको सिकार बन्छन्। मानिसको उमेरसँगै मानसिक परिवर्तन पनि भइरहन्छ। जस्तै:- बाल्य अवस्था, युवा अवस्था र वृद्धा अवस्थामा अवस्था अनुसार व्याक्तीको मानसिक स्थिती फरक फरक हुन्छ अथवा परिवर्तन भै रहन्छ। यदी व्याक्तिको मानसिक परिवर्तनमा व्यक्तिले वस गर्न नसकेर व्यक्ति पागल हुनसक्छ ।


पागलपनको समाधान
पागलपनको उपचारको लागी चिकित्सको सल्लाह अनुसार उसलाई कुन कुराको मानसिक समस्याले गर्दा पागलपन बढिरहेको हो त्यस कुरामा विषेश सतर्क भएर व्यवहार गनृूपर्दछ । मानसिक रुपमा यस्ता अस्वस्त व्यक्तिहरुलाई मुख्यतय सामाजिक तथा पारिवारिक रुपमानै दुव्र्यवहार गर्नु हुदैन उ पनि हाम्रै सदस्य ठानेर व्यवहार गर्नुपर्दछ । साथीभाइ छरछिमेकले राम्रो व्यवहार गरेको खण्डमा उसको मानसिक समस्या समाधान हुन सक्छन । उसलाई हासोको पात्र बनाइनु हुदैन ।

मानसिक तनाव Tension

मानसिक तनाव Tension

हामी मानव स्वभावलेनै अनेक इच्छा आकाक्षा राख्ने खालका हुन्छौ । यस संसारमा हामी मानव बाच्नका लागि अनेक थरिका क्रियाकलापमा संलग्न हुन पर्ने हुन्छ । धेरै थरिका व्यक्तिहरु संग भेटघाट तथा मित्रता कायम गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ । कतिपय व्यक्तिहरु संग तथा झन यति नजिकको सम्बन्ध कायम भएर जान्छ । कति व्यक्तिहरु संग क्षणिककोमात्र आवश्यकता हुने गर्दछ । यस्तै क्रममा सबै जना संग बाट आफुले चाहेको जस्तो हुन्छ भन्ने हुदैन । कतिपय नचाहेको कुराहरुको समस्याको हल पनि हामी सहजै गर्न सक्दछौ कतिपयको हल गर्न हामीलाई गाह्रो परिरहेको हुन्छ । हामीलाई दिमागमा त्यहि कुराले सताइरहेका हुन्छ । कति गर्दा पनि त्यस कुराको चिन्ताले हामीलाई छोडेको हुदैन । कतिपय मानसिक तनावले त हामीलाई वर्षौ सम्म पनि सताइरहन सक्दछ । 

मानसिक तनावको मुख्य कारणहरु
जव हाम्रो मनको दुई बिभिन्न प्रकारका इच्छा, आवेग या प्रवृत्तिहरु परस्पर विरोधी दिशामा तानिन्छन तव अन्तरद्वन्द तथा मानसिक तनाव उत्पनन हुन्छ । मानसिक तनाव बढ्नुको कारणहरुमा हामीले जे कुरा चाहन्छौ त्यो कुरा प्राप्त नहुनु , मानसिक डर, चिन्ता, रिस, सामाजिक तथा आर्थिक समस्या, लामो समयसम्म पनि कुनै समस्याको हल नहुनु , व्यक्तिगत सम्झौता गर्न नसक्नु , दैनिक कामको बोझ आदि कुराहरुले गर्दा मानसिक तनाव उत्पन्न गराउन सक्दछ । 

बेफाइदाहरु
मानसिक तनाव बढ्नाले अनेक प्रकारका शारिरिक तथा मानसिक रोगहरु हामीलाई उत्पन्न हुने गर्दछ । ब्लडप्रेसर, मुटुरोग, डायबिटिज, अल्सल, टाउको दुख्ने, डिप्रेसन तथा अन्य मस्तिस्कलाई हामी पु¥याउने खालको रोगहरु हामीलाई लाग्न सक्दछ ।

समाधान
साथिभाइ तथा परिवारको सदस्य संग खुव मन खोलेर हास्ने ।
जुनकाममा आफुलाई रुचि छ त्यसै काममा आफु संलग्न हुने ।
आफु कमजोर तथा केही गर्न नसक्ने अयोग्य सम्झेर चिन्तीत नुहुने ।
आफ्ने भावनामा नियन्त्रण राख्न सिक्ने ।
नियमित व्यायाम गर्ने बानि बसाल्ने ।
नया ठाउहरुको भ्रमण गर्ने ।
आफुने मान्ने इश्वरलाई सम्झेर प्राथना गर्ने ।
मनोरञ्जनको लागि समय निकाल्ने ।
कुनै कुराको लागि लामो समय सम्म चिन्ता नगर्ने ।
धेरै मानसिक तनाव हुने गरि लामो समय सम्म काममा व्यस्त नहुने ।

विध्यार्थी माझ मानसिक तनाव | Nepal Melbourne

विध्यार्थी माझ मानसिक तनाव | Nepal Melbourne

Tuesday, April 5, 2011

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT


HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Course Contents:

Ø     Introduction to Human Resource Management: 10 Marks.
v     Concept, characteristics, objectives, functions of HRM.
v     HRM System, personnel and human resource management.
v     Human resource outcomes: Quality of work life productivity and readiness to change.
Ø     Human Resource Planning: 10 Marks.
v     Concept, characteristics of human resource planning.
v     Concept of human resource strategy, relationship between human resource planning and strategic planning.
v     Human Resource Planning process: Assessing current human resources, demand and supply, forecasting human resource inventory, human resource information system, succession planning, human resource planning in Nepalese.
Ø     Job design and analysis: 10 Marks.
v     Meaning of job. Task position and occupation.
v     Concept of benefit of job design
v     Concept and purposes of job analysis, collecting job description, job specification and job evaluation.
Ø     Recruitment, selection and socialization: 10 Marks.
v     Meaning, sources and method of recruitment
v     Concept of selection difference between selection and recruitment.
v     The selection process, selection tests, interview and their types.
v     Reliability and validity of tests.
v     Concept and process of socialization.
Ø     Training and Development: 10 Marks.
v     Concept and process of learning.
v      Human resource development concept and importance.
v     Concept, objectives and benefits of training, determining training needs.
v     Training Methods.
v     Concept and techniques of management development.
v     Evaluating training effectiveness.
v     Training and Development in Nepal.
Ø     Performance Appraisal and Reward management: 10 Marks.
v     Concept and use of performance appraisal.
v     Methods of performance appraisal graphic rating scale alternative ranking, paired comparison, forced distribution critical incident checklist method.
v     Concept of reward management, types and qualities of effective reward.
Ø     Compensation Management: 10 Marks.
v     Concept and determinance of compensation.
v     Method of establishing compensation.
v     Current trends in compensation.
v     Incentive plans, different forms of incentives.
Ø     Employee Discipline: 10 Marks.
v     Concept and types of disciplinary problems.
v     General guidelines in administrating discipline.
v     Disciplinary actions.
Ø     Labor Relation: 10 Marks.
v     Concept and purpose of labor relation.
v     The actors of industrial relation.
v     Employee grievances, causes and handling grievance.
v     Labor disputes: Prevention and settlement of disputes.


CHAPTER: 01 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:

          The concept of human resource management organizational effectiveness largely depends up o the performance of people working in the organization.
          People as human resource only when the acquired such as knowledge, skills, attitudes, experience and potential growth. Human resource are some people who are willing to contribute their skills, talents and attitude in orders to achieve organizational goals.
          HRM is concerned with the people element in the organization. It is concerned with the effective management of available human resources in the organization.
          It involves the production utilization of people in order to achieve organizational goals.
HRM in term increasing used to refer to the philosophy policies, procedures and practices related to the effective management of people of the organization. HRM can be a major contribution on the success of organization.
          According to Robbins, “Human resource management is a process of four functions: acquisition, development, motivation and maintenance of human development.”
          According to French, “Human resource management is the systematic planning, development and control of network of interrelated process affecting and involving all member of organization.”

Nature/ Characteristics of Human Resource Management:

  1. Human Focus
  2. Pervasive
  3. Continuous
  4. Dynamic
  5. System.

Ø     Human Focus:
HRM is concerned with the effective management of people possessing energy and capabilities. It is individual oriented. It is specially focused on the human oriented approach. The detailed investigation of human resource in organization is made.
Ø     Pervasive:
HRM is a pervasive function of management. It is performed in all levels of management. The responsibility of human resource can not be delegated to others. HRM is practically implemented in the organization at various levels
Ø     Continuous:
HRM is a continuous function of management. In other words, it is not a one-time process. It will continue till the organization exists. It is continuously monitored at every step of organization existence.
Ø     Dynamic:
HRM is not a static concept but a dynamic function. It is also affected by internal environment like human resource policies, goals of the organization, structure etc. it is also affected by external environment like PESTEL factors.
Ø     System:
HRM is a system of input, processing and output. It utilizes the input, process it and also provide output. Therefore, human resource management is the combination of input, processing and output, which is considered as a system.


Objectives of Human Resource Management:

1.     Goal Achievement
2.     Structure Maintenance
3.     Goal Harmony
4.     Productivity Improvement
5.     Efficiency.

Human resource management is the important component of management. It is the combination of four functions. The main objectives of human resource management are as follows:
Ø      Goal Achievement:
Human resource management makes effective utilization of available human resources by providing them training, and development. The goal of the organization is achieved when there is proper utilization of potential human resources.
Ø      Structure Maintenance:
Every organization has it’s organizational structure. The objectives of human resource management is to maintain adequate organizational structure. It helps to improve the relationship among the human resource in the organizational setting.
Ø      Goal Harmony:
In an organization, there are individual and organizational goals, it brings harmony in organizational goals and individual goals of employees. It recognize and satisfies individual need in order to achieve overall organizational goals.
Ø      Productivity Improvement:
Human resource management is concentrated in providing different training and other opportunities to the employees in order to increase skill and productivity of individual employees. Better quality of human resources result in improved productivity.
Ø      Efficiency:
Human resource management avoid wastage and promote efficiency of human resources. It ensures cost-effective utilization of human resources. The higher the productivity, higher is the efficiency of employees. In this way, the main objective of human resource management (HRM) is also to increase the efficiency of individual employee.

Functions / Areas of Human Resource Management:

1.     Human Resource Planning:
The important function of human resource management is to prepare human resource planning. It involves demand and supply of employees. While making human resource planning, the human resource department has to review the organizational goals. A human resource information system provides detailed information about the current employees, which helps for making good plan.
2.    Recruitment and Selection:
One of the important functions of human resource management is the recruitment and selection. Recruitment is a process of making a pool or qualified candidates. Selection is the process of accepting the best candidates from many candidates. Recruitment function starts with the application process. Information from job analysis and human resource information system is used for selecting the best candidates.
3.    Training and Development:
Training and development is also the another function of human resource management and development is required to develop the skill, ability and motivation of employees. Human resource department has to engage in assessing training need. On-the-job training and off-the-job training can be provided to the employees.

4.    Performance Appraisal:
Performance appraisal is the process of evaluating performance of employees regarding strength and weakness. It helps to assess hoe well the employees are performing their job. Human resource manager have to design appraisal technique to get feedback from employees.
5.    Job Analysis:
It is the basic function of human resource management. It involves the collection of job related information to prepare job description and job specification. Job description includes information about what a person has to do. In job specification, it indicates the qualification, experience and skills required to perform the job as mentioned in job description.

continued.........................

Monday, April 4, 2011

Marketing.


What is Marketing?

Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.[1] It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business developments.[2] It is an integrated process through which companies build strong customer and create value for their customers and for themselves.[2]
Marketing is used to identify the customer, satisfy the customer, and keep the customer. With the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that marketing management is one of the major components of business management. Marketing evolved to meet the stasis in developing new markets caused by mature markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries.[citation needed] The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift their focus from production to the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable.[citation needed]
The term marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on knowing the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions.[3] It proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, an organization should anticipate the needs and wants of consumers and satisfy these more effectively than competitors.[3]

 

What exactly is marketing and why is it important to you as an entrepreneur? Simply stated, marketing is everything you do to place your product or service in the hands of potential customers.
The some popular definition about marketing are as follows:
Ø      Marketing is the social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others.
Kotler.
Ø      Marketing is the management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer requirements profitably.
The Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM).
Ø      The CIM definition (in common with Barwell's definition of the marketing concept) looks not only at identifying customer needs, but also satisfying them (short-term) and anticipating them in the future (long-term retention).
Ø      The right product, in the right place, at the right time, at the right price
Adcock.
Ø      This is a snappy and realistic definition that uses McCarthy's Four Ps.
Ø      Marketing is essentially about marshalling the resources of an organization so that they meet the changing needs of the customer on whom the organization depends.
Palmer.
This is a more recent and very realistic definition that looks at matching capabilities with needs.
Marketing is the process whereby society, to supply its consumption needs, evolves distributive systems composed of participants, who, interacting under constraints - technical (economic) and ethical (social) - create the transactions or flows which resolve market separations and result in exchange and consumption.
Bartles.
This definition considers the economic and social aspects of marketing.

The Philosophy Marketing and the Marketing Concept.

The marketing concept is a philosophy. It makes the customer, and the satisfaction of his or her needs, the focal point of all business activities. It is driven by senior managers, passionate about delighting their customers.
Marketing is not only much broader than selling, it is not a specialized activity at all It encompasses the entire business. It is the whole business seen from the point of view of the final result, that is, from the customer's point of view. Concern and responsibility for marketing must therefore permeate all areas of the enterprise.
Drucker.
This customer focused philosophy is known as the 'marketing concept'. The marketing concept is a philosophy, not a system of marketing or an organizational structure. It is founded on the belief that profitable sales and satisfactory returns on investment can only be achieved by identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer needs and desires.
Barwell.
The achievement of corporate goals through meeting and exceeding customer needs better than the competition.
Jobber.
Implementation of the marketing concept [in the 1990's] requires attention to three basic elements of the marketing concept. These are: Customer orientation; An organization to implement a customer orientation; Long-range customer and societal welfare.
Cohen.
Now that you have been introduced to some definitions of marketing and the marketing concept, remember the important elements contained as follows:
·                                 Marketing focuses on the satisfaction of customer needs, wants and requirements.
·                                 The philosophy of marketing needs to be owned by everyone from within the organization.
·                                 Future needs have to be identified and anticipated.
·                                 There is normally a focus upon profitability, especially in the corporate sector. However, as public sector organizations and not-for-profit organizations adopt the concept of marketing, this need not always be the case.
·                                 More recent definitions recognize the influence of marketing upon society.
It includes diverse disciplines like sales, public relations, pricing, packaging, and distribution. In order to distinguish marketing from other related professional services, S.H. Simmons, author and humorist, relates this anecdote.
"If a young man tells his date she's intelligent, looks lovely, and is a great conversationalist, he's saying the right things to the right person and that's marketing. If the young man tells his date how handsome, smart and successful he is -- that's advertising. If someone else tells the young woman how handsome, smart and successful her date is -- that's public relations."
You might think of marketing this way. If business is all about people and money and the art of persuading one to part from the other, then marketing is all about finding the right people to persuade.
Marketing is your strategy for allocating resources (time and money) in order to achieve your objectives (a fair profit for supplying a good product or service).
Yet the most brilliant strategy won't help you earn a profit or achieve your wildest dreams if it isn't built around your potential customers. A strategy that isn't based on customers is rather like a man who knows a thousand ways to make love to a woman, but doesn't know any women. Great in theory but unrewarding in practice.
If you fit the classic definition of an entrepreneur (someone with a great idea who's under-capitalized), you may think marketing is something you do later -- after the product is developed, manufactured, or ready to sell.
Though it may feel counter-intuitive, marketing doesn't begin with a great idea or a unique product. It begins with customers -- those people who want or need your product and will actually buy it.
Entrepreneurs are in love with their ideas, and they should be. After all, why would anyone commit their energy, life savings, and no small part of their sanity to anything less than a consuming passion. Because entrepreneurs are passionate about their idea, product, or service, they innocently assume other people will feel the same. Here's the bad news -- it just doesn't work that way!
People have their own unique perceptions of the world based on their belief system. The most innovative ideas, the greatest products, or a superior service succeed only when you market within the context of people's perceptions.
Context can be many things, singly or simultaneously. To name a few, you may market to your customers within the context of their wants, needs, problems solved, or situation improved. Entrepreneurs need to be aware of many other contexts, such as social and economic trends or governmental regulations, which we'll discuss another time.
People don't just "buy" a product. They "buy" the concept of what that product will do for them, or help them do for themselves. People who are overweight don't join a franchise diet center to eat pre-packaged micro-meals. They "buy" the concept of a new, thin, happy and successful self.
Before you become consumed with entrepreneurial zeal and invest your life savings in a new venture, become a smart marketer. Take time at the beginning to discover who your potential customers are, and how to effectively reach them.
Without a plan, your entrepreneurial dream is really wishful thinking. While a marketing plan can be a map for success, remember that the map is not the territory. A strategy that ignores the customer isn't an accurate reflection of the landscape.
A good marketing plan can help you focus your energy and resources. But a plan created in a vacuum, based solely on your perceptions, does not advance the agenda. That's why market research, however simple or sophisticated, is important.
Just keep in mind that research attempts to predict the future by studying the past. It reveals what people have done, and extrapolates what people might do -- not what people will do.
Planning is imperative, research is important, but there's no substitute for entrepreneurial insight. After all, as Mark Twain wrote, "You cannot depend on your eyes when your imagination is out of focus".

The Marketing Plan

If marketing is everything you do to place your product (or service) in the hands of potential customers, how do you do it all -- especially if you're all alone? It helps to have a plan.
A marketing plan is more than your map for success. It's actually a map-making process that when complete will reveal a clear route to your prospective customers.
A good map reveals specific items of information. A good marketing plan should do the same for you. Here are six things your marketing plan should help you accomplish.
1) Prove that you understand your industry. Knowing your product isn't enough.
2) Identify your target market. These are the people most likely to buy your product or use your services.
3) Identify your competition. Who's out there and what are they doing?
4) Establish your pricing, distribution, and product positioning. How much will it cost plus a fair profit? How will you get it there? And where do you fit into the marketplace?
5) Get someone to subsidize your dream. If you want to attract investors, a written marketing plan is essential.
6) Focus on a single effective marketing concept. Define your strongest strength and lead with that. For example, Little Caesar's "pizza pizza" may not be the most innovative idea ever conceived -- but it's certainly one of the more effective. Why? Because it's simple and consistent.
Here are the major components that you should consider when writing your marketing plan.
Mission (or vision) statement:
This is an external communication of your company's values. Like Admiral Stockdale, you're answering the question, "Who am I and what am I doing here".
Company objective:
This section communicates what you want to do, by when, and how (what are your resources?). It is specific, quantifiable, and is inclusive of your entire company. It is not merely a sales goal. If you're an entrepreneur, your company objective might also serve as your marketing objective.
Market analysis:
This section reports on the findings of the extensive research that you have pursued and prepared. You need to discuss various factors of the market environment in relation to your product. These factors include legal, social, political, economic, and technological considerations.
Target audience:
Based on your research, discuss who your customers are and how you can reach them. Here's where you decide whether to niche or not, or to segment your audience either vertically or horizontally.
Competitive analysis:
Your advance research should reveal your competitors, the obvious and especially the others. How does what they're doing relate to your product? What advantages do you have? How can you keep the advantage?
Action plan:
As Shakespeare said, "Action is eloquence". You've made your map. Now you can define the best route to reach your customers. This section of your marketing plan outlines what media mix you'll use to reach your audience. Advertising -- where, how often, and at what cost. Public relations -- specific programs and promotions of interest to the community. Sales strategies -- incentive programs for representatives and distributors as well as prospective customers.
A successful marketing plan is based on research and analysis. But because information can be manipulated to prove almost anything, insight is equally important. As Edward de Bono says, "Proof is often no more than a lack of imagination".

Market Research

As a famous scientist once responded to a reporter's earnest question: "Research is what I'm doing when I don't know what I'm doing". As entrepreneurial-minded people, we would be well advised to listen to this simple wisdom.
Market research is more than the analysis of raw data. It is the opportunity to look outside your company to factors that may affect your success.
Research often begins with a guess, sometimes an informed guess based upon your observations, experiences, and belief system. Often the process of gathering information can feel counter-intuitive, especially when research indicates something other than what you believe.
Contrary to popular belief, market research is subjective -- and that's o.k. Your entrepreneurial vision becomes both a filter and a framework for reviewing information. The process begins with an idea or a passion. Then we conduct research to determine if the idea has merit. We begin by asking questions. Who are my potential customers? How large is my target market? What's the perceived value of my product? Who are my competitors? How is my idea unique? How can I communicate that uniqueness?
Market research is like a scientist who seeks to prove or disprove a hypothesis through questions, analysis, and observation. But research is much more than the analysis of information. It is a willingness to admit "I don't know". While market research seeks to confirm your idea with information, the admission of "I don't know" affords you the opportunity to discover other, possibly superior ideas.
Primary, or original, research is expensive, but Les Brown, a Detroit motivational speaker and author, suggests an inexpensive and readily available tool for gathering information, called TTP -- or if that fails, TTMP. That stands for talk to people -- and then talk to more people.
University professors, industry analysts, bankers, newspaper editors, and government officials can provide invaluable current information and refer you to additional sources. All you need to do is (1) ask intelligently, (2) recognize their contribution, and (3) show your appreciation. "Asking intelligently" means being prepared before you call, write or fax.
Even though we live in the information age, getting information from and to people is an expensive, sometimes unwieldy process. Here are some or my favorite sources of relatively low cost secondary (previously accumulated) research.
Michigan Information Center, 517-373-2697.
Disseminates U.S. Bureau of Census information.
Michigan Business Ombudsman, 800-232-2727, 517-373-6241.
Where to turn when confused and overwhelmed by the structure of MI state government.
U.S. Chamber of Commerce.
Inexpensive information about factors affecting business.
Dun and Bradstreet's Million Dollar Directory.
Library reference guide with company profiles
Info Power by Matthew Lesko, 301-369-1519.
Guide to free and low cost information.
The Directory of On-Line and Computer Readable Databases, Gale Research, 800-677-7760.
Available through Working Woman Magazine.
On-line information:
University of Michigan Computing, Information Technology Division, 734-764-3518
American Buslness Information, 402-593-4545.
Information and list brokers.
Research is a process. Like innovation, it is continuous. Perhaps surprisingly, the answer isn't nearly as important as the act of asking the question.

Marketing Tips

After more years in marketing than I care to publicly confess, here it is. The distilled wisdom and previously undisclosed two-step strategy for success is simply this:
1) Have a clear intention. Know what you want to be, do, or have.
2) Take consistent action. Do the things necessary to achieve the desired outcome.
Like all things simple, the practical reality is somewhat more complex. That's because the process of taking action in accordance with a clear intention often takes you someplace unexpected.
It's a fundamental misconception to believe that you can control the process or the outcome of marketing activity. You can have a clear intention (a goal), a step-by-step process for achieving the intention (objectives), and an internal plan for providing the product or service (a strategy). But if taking action alters even the clearest intention, how does an entrepreneur avoid descending into chaos?
Enter the two most important words in the entrepreneur's vocabulary -- not "undercapitalized" -- but focus and flexibility. Focus is that rare ability to pay attention to a select number of things -- the finite not the infinite. Flexibility is the willingness to continually re-focus your intention based on the new information that arises from consistent action.
If you can't control the process or the outcome of marketing, where's the fixed point? The one constant is the customer. Building relationships and providing customer service is not a marketing event but the creation of an environment of trust.
Just as Will Rogers "never met a man he didn't like", I've never met an entrepreneur who focused too much on potential customers. Passionate belief in their product or service leads many entrepreneurs into the pitfall of universal appeal. Even if everyone on the planet is a potential customer, mass marketing in the early stage of your company development is too expensive and unwieldy.
Focusing on specific groups of potential customers that share common characteristics (vertical markets) is both economical and quantifiable. It's easy to monitor a target audience response while you build in-depth knowledge of their profile and develop an environment of trust. If focused activity produces results other than those you desire, it's time to be flexible and re-direct your intention, or approach another vertical market, with consistent action.
The entrepreneurial watchwords for this month -- focus, flexibility, and fun. To paraphrase Joline Godfrey, if you aren't making money, doing some good, and having fun, what's the point!

Market Positioning

Falling in love! As entrepreneurs, we do it every day. Our passionate belief in, and commitment to, our product (or service) makes all things seem possible. The most successful entrepreneurs learn to transform their passion into position.
Positioning is a perceptual location. It's where your product or service fits into the marketplace. Effective positioning puts you first in line in the minds of potential customers.
As individuals, we continually position ourselves. The responsible older sibling, the class clown, a number cruncher, a super genius are all examples of positioning. These identifiers help us define ourselves and distinguish our abilities as unique and different from other people.
Positioning is a powerful tool that allows you to create an image. And image is the outward representation of being who you want to be, doing what you want to do, and having what you want to have. Positioning yourself can lead to personal fulfillment. Being positioned by someone else restricts your choices and limits your opportunities.
That's why it's so important for entrepreneurs to transform their passion into a market position. If you don't define your product or service, a competitor will do it for you. Your position in the market place evolves from the defining characteristics of your product. The primary elements of positioning are:
  • Pricing. Is your product a luxury item, somewhere in the middle, or cheap, cheap, cheap.
  • Quality. Total quality is a much used and abused phrase. But is your product well produced? What controls are in place to assure consistency? Do you back your quality claim with customer-friendly guarantees, warranties, and return policies?
  • Service. Do you offer the added value of customer service and support? Is your product customized and personalized?
  • Distribution. How do customers obtain your product? The channel or distribution is part of positioning.
  • Packaging. Packaging makes a strong statement. Make sure it's delivering the message you intend.
Positioning is your competitive strategy. What's the one thing you do best? What's unique about your product or service? Identify your strongest strength and use it to position your product.
The product Nyquil was conceived as a superior daytime cough suppressant. Unfortunately, it made people drowsy. Determined to recoup product development costs, the side affect of drowsiness was then transformed into a powerful positioning strategy. Nyquil became "the night time, coughing, sniffling, sneezing so you can rest" medicine. Nyquil created and owned the nighttime cold remedy market.
As the Baptist minister of my childhood would say at the conclusion of a lengthy sermon, "I've said all that to say this". Positioning, when used effectively, can help you be first in the mind. Being first in mind equals ownership. Market ownership allows you to be a big fish in a small pond. When you're a big fish, you can always increase the size of the pond.
Marketing is basically your interaction with your consumer. This interaction with your consumer is done so that you can get the consumer to purchase your product or service. Basically that is what marketing is all about, getting the customer to purchase your product or service!
There is a tendency to confuse “marketing” with other terms like “advertising” or “publicity” etc. However, advertising is only a small part of marketing. Advertising is one of the ways in which you can get the customer to purchase your product or service. There are many other ways. Like "publicity" though newspapers will increase awareness about your product or service and thus may get the customer to purchase your product or service.
The point is that marketing is a mixture of all the activities of advertising, promotion, publicity, deciding the look and feel of the product, how it will be sold and sent to the consumer etc. All of these are the different parts of marketing. They are not marketing.
Marketing can be thought of as a mixture of all these activities that will get the consumer to buy your product. In fact, this gives us one of the important terms related to marketing called "marketing mix". Marketing mix, as stated above is a mixture of all the above stated activities designed to get a particular set of consumers to buy your product. These terms will be explained later in much more detail.
This article is written for small business who want to increase their customers though marketing as well as large business who plan to target even the whole country as their target market. Besides that, it serves as a good text, that will give you a practical understanding of what the marketing process is all about.




Core concepts of Marketing - needs, wants, and demands
What are the differences and relationships among needs, wants, and demands?
Needs are the basic human requirements. People need food, air, water, clothing, and shelter to survive. People also have strong needs for creation, education, and entertainment.
The above needs become wants when they are directed to specific objects that might satisfy the need. An American needs food but may want a hamburger, French fries, and a soft drink. A person in Mauritius needs food but may want a mango, rice, lentils, and beans. Wants are shaped by one's society.
Demands are wants for specific products backed by an ability to pay. Many people want a Mercedes; only a few are willing and able to buy one.
Companies must measure not only how many people want their product but also how many would actually be willing and able to buy it.
Understanding customer needs and wants is not always simple. Some customers have needs of which they are not fully conscious, or they cannot articulate these needs, or they use words that require some interpretation. Consider the customer who says he wants an "inexpensive car.". The marketer must probe further. We can distinguish among five types of needs:
1. Stated needs (the customer wants an inexpensive car).
2. Real needs (the customer wants a car who operating cost, not its initial price, is low).
3. Unstated needs (the customer expects good service from the dealer).
4. Delight needs (the customer would like the dealer to include an onboard navigation system).
5. Secret needs (the customer wants to be seen by friends as a savvy consumer).
 References: 
Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller. Marketing Management, Twelfth Edition.

The Marketing Orientation and the Marketing Concept
An organization with a market orientation focuses its efforts on 1)
continuously collecting information about customers' needs and
competitors' capabilities, 2) sharing this information across
departments, and 3) using the information to create customer value.

The market orientation simply defines an organization that understands the
importance of customer needs, makes an effort to provide products of
high value to its customers, and markets its products and services in a
coordinated holistic program across all departments.  In what we call
the "Marketing Concept," the company embraces a philosophy that the
"Customer is King."

The Marketing Concept is an attitude. It's a philosophy that is driven down throughout the
organization from the very top of the management structure.  The
Marketing Concept communicates that "the customer is king."  Everything
that the company does focuses on the customer.  Via the Marketing
Concept, a company makes every effort to best understand the wants and
needs of its target market and to create want-satisfying goods that
best fulfill the needs of that target market and to do this better than
the competition.


It wasn't always that way.  There were other orientations that companies embraced over the years.
The Production Concept has been around for years.  That concept simply suggests that customers
prefer inexpensive products that are readily available.  In effect, "if
we make it, they will come."


The Product Concept suggests that companies that build the "better mousetrap" will gain
favor. The thinking here is that customers want products that have
higher quality, that offer better perfromance or do something unique.


The Selling Concept preceeded the Marketing Concept.  From the 1920's until the 1950's,
most firms had a sales orientation.  Competition had grown, and there
was a need to pursue the scarce customer.  Sales could mean everything
from sales people to advertising to public relations, but little effort
was made to coordinate any overall marketing function. What we often
saw in the Selling Concept was the "hard sell" and the belief that
consumers wouldn't purchase unless they were sold.


The Holistic Marketing Concept that is embraced in the 21st century results in companies looking at
their overall marketing efforts.  This includes how their marketing
affects society, as a whole.  Marketing is also done internally
within the company.  Without customers, a company will quickly flounder
-- thus the importance of the relationship.  Holistic marketing looks
at the connectivity of the company, its people, its customers, and the
society in which it operates. The Societal Marketing Concept focuses
on.


From a lecture of Marketing Management from professor Rich Ottum.
The Four P's in Marketing Mangement

  1.  
Product - A good, service, or idea to satisfy the consumer's needs.  It
includes the physical product and its packaging, or a service along
with warrantees and guarantees.
  1.  
Price - What is exchanged for the product, usually money.
  1.  
Promotion  - A means of communication between the seller and buyer.  It consists
of advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing,
and personal selling.
  1.  
Place - A means of getting the product into the consumer's hands (via
channels of distribution, e.g., wholesalers, retailers, etc.). Channel
of distribution members help to physically move product from a
manufacturer to the ultimate consumer via those wholesalers and
retailers.
What's Marketing?
What's Marketing? It's both an "art" and a "science", there is constant tension between the formulated side of marketing and the creative side.. One of the shortest definitions of marketing is "meeting needs profitably."
 Formal definition from The American Marketing Association: Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stake holders.
Marketing management is the art and science of choosing target markets and getting, keeping, and growing customers through creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value.
 The social definition of marketing shows the role it plays in society which is to "deliver a higher standard of living." Marking is a societal process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating, offering, and freely exchanging products and services of value with others.
The managerial definition of marketing has often been described as "the art of selling products," but the most important part of marketing is not selling! Selling is only the tip of the marketing iceberg. Peter Drucker, a leading management theorist, puts it this way:

There will always, one can assume, be need for some selling. But the aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous. The aim of marketing is to know and understand the customers so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself. Ideally, marketing should result in a customer who is ready to buy. All that should be needed then is to make the product or service available.


References: 
Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller. Marketing Management, Twelfth Edition.

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